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Complete NCERT Social Science — History, Geography, Civics, Economics — Indian History, World Geography, Constitution, Indian Economy.
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Period | Mature Harappan: 2600–1900 BCE; Early: 3300–2600 BCE; Late: 1900–1300 BCE |
| Major sites | Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Banawali |
| Planned cities | Grid pattern streets, drainage system, Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro), granaries, citadel |
| Economy | Agriculture (wheat, barley), trade (Mesopotamia, Oman), seals for trade identification |
| Script | Pictographic script — still undeciphered (right-to-left, boustrophedon) |
| Religion | Mother Goddess (Terracotta figurines), Pashupati seal, nature worship, no temples found |
| Arts & Crafts | Bronze dancing girl, bead-making, pottery, cotton weaving, jewellery |
| Decline theories | Climate change, tectonic activity, river course change (Ghaggar-Hakra), Aryan invasion (disputed) |
| Lothal speciality | Dockyard, bead-making factory, trade with Mesopotamia |
| Dholavira speciality | Signboard, large rainwater harvesting system, three-part division of city |
| Aspect | Rig Vedic (Early) | Later Vedic |
|---|---|---|
| Period | c. 1500–1000 BCE | c. 1000–600 BCE |
| Geography | Sapta Sindhu region (Punjab) | Gangetic plains (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar) |
| Economy | Cattle rearing (wealth = cows), barley | Agriculture (rice, wheat), iron tools, trade |
| Society | Mostly egalitarian, tribal (Jana) | Four Varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra |
| Polity | Rajan (king) — elected/selected, Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha | Larger kingdoms (Mahajanapadas), hereditary kingship, taxes (Bali, Bhaga) |
| Religion | Nature worship (Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma) | Rituals (sacrifices, Yajnas), Sanskritisation, caste rigidity |
| Texts | Rigveda (oldest), Samaveda, Yajurveda | Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads |
| Ashvamedha | Royal horse sacrifice to claim territory | More elaborate royal rituals |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder | Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE) — overthrew Nandas with Chanakya's help |
| Chanakya (Kautilya) | Author of Arthashastra — treatise on statecraft, economics, military strategy |
| Bindusara | Son of Chandragupta; extended empire further south |
| Ashoka the Great | Grandson of Chandragupta; Kalinga War (261 BCE) transformed him to Buddhism |
| Ashoka's Dhamma | Policy of moral governance: tolerance, non-violence, respect for elders, welfare of subjects |
| Edicts | Rock edicts & pillar edicts across the empire — written in Brahmi, Greek, Aramaic, Prakrit |
| Administration | Centralised bureaucracy; provinces governed by Kumara (royal princes); spies and officials |
| Army | Infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots — 6 lakh infantry mentioned |
| Revenue | Land tax (1/6th of produce), trade taxes, mining revenue |
| Decline | Weak successors after Ashoka; Pushyamitra Shunga (185 BCE) overthrew last Mauryan king Brihadratha |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder | Chandragupta I (320 CE) — title Maharajadhiraja |
| Samudragupta | Chandragupta I's son — "Napoleon of India"; extensive military conquests; Harishena's Allahabad Pillar inscription praises him |
| Chandragupta II | Vikramaditya — most powerful Gupta ruler; court had Navaratnas (Nine Gems): Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira |
| Administration | Decentralised — feudatories and local bodies; king as chief judge & military commander |
| Economy | Flourishing trade (Silk Route), land grants to Brahmanas, guilds (shrenis) of artisans |
| Religion | Hindu revival; temples built; Buddhism declining; Jainism patronised |
| Science | Aryabhata (zero, astronomy, π), Varahamihira (astronomy), Susruta (surgery) |
| Literature | Kalidasa (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha), Banabhatta (Harshacharita) |
| Art | Ajanta paintings, Sarnath Lion Capital style, Gupta temples (flat-roofed, shikhara emerging) |
| Decline | Huna invasions (white Huns), weak successors, feudal decentralisation |
| Iron Pillar (Delhi) | Chandragupta II era — rust-resistant iron, metallurgical marvel |
Vedic period. Key transitions: copper → iron tools; cattle rearing → settled agriculture; tribal assemblies → hereditary monarchy.| Dynasty | Period | Founder | Key Rulers & Events |
|---|---|---|---|
| Slave (Mamluk) | 1206–1290 | Qutbuddin Aibak | Qutb Minar; Iltutmish completed it; Razia Sultan — only woman ruler; Balban — strong centralisation |
| Khilji | 1290–1320 | Jalaluddin Khilji | Alauddin Khilji — market reforms (price control), Mongol defence, Chittor conquest, Raziyya's administrative reforms |
| Tughlaq | 1320–1414 | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | Muhammad bin Tughlaq — token currency, capital shifted to Daulatabad, failed experiments; Firoz Shah Tughlaq — canals, public works |
| Sayyid | 1414–1451 | Khizr Khan | Weak dynasty; Timur's invasion (1398); declining power; controlled only Delhi & surrounding areas |
| Lodi | 1451–1526 | Bahlul Lodi | Sikandar Lodi — founded Agra city; Ibrahim Lodi — defeated by Babur at First Battle of Panipat (1526) |
| Ruler | Period | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526–1530 | First Battle of Panipat (1526) — defeated Ibrahim Lodi; introduced gunpowder & cannons; wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (autobiography) |
| Humayun | 1530–1540, 1555–1556 | Lost to Sher Shah Suri; regained throne with Persian help; introduced Persian architecture (paintings, gardens) |
| Akbar the Great | 1556–1605 | Greatest Mughal ruler; Rajput policy (marriage alliances); Mansabdari system; Din-i-Ilahi; Toleration; built Fatehpur Sikri; expanded empire vastly |
| Jahangir | 1605–1627 | Patron of arts (painting); Nur Jahan's influence; Chain of Justice;接触 with British East India Company (Sir Thomas Roe, 1615) |
| Shah Jahan | 1627–1658 | Golden age of architecture — Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Peacock Throne; Deccan campaigns costly |
| Aurangzeb | 1658–1707 | Longest reign; expanded to maximum; reversed Akbar's policies; orthodox Sunni; destroyed temples; Deccan wars drained treasury; Maratha conflict |
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Portuguese arrival (Vasco da Gama) | 1498 | First Europeans to reach India via sea route; Goa captured in 1510 |
| East India Company founded | 1600 | Charter from Queen Elizabeth I; trade monopoly over India |
| First English factory | 1613 | Set up at Surat (Gujarat) by the British |
| Sir Thomas Roe at Jahangir's court | 1615 | First English ambassador; secured trading privileges |
| Battle of Plassey | 1757 | Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah; British control over Bengal began |
| Battle of Buxar | 1764 | British defeated combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II |
| Diwani rights | 1765 | British got right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa from Mughal Emperor |
| Regulating Act | 1773 | First step by British Parliament to regulate EIC affairs; Governor-General of Bengal created (Warren Hastings) |
| Pitt's India Act | 1784 | Dual government: Board of Control (British govt) + Court of Directors (Company) |
| Charter Act of 1833 | 1833 | Governor-General of Bengal became Governor-General of India; ended Company's trade monopoly |
| Charter Act of 1853 | 1853 | Open competition for civil services introduced; separate Legislative Council created |
| Doctrine of Lapse | 1848 | Lord Dalhousie policy — annex princely states with no male heir (Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, Udaipur) |
| Annexation of Oudh | 1856 | Wajid Ali Shah deposed on grounds of misrule — major cause of 1857 revolt |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Immediate cause | New Enfield rifle cartridges greased with cow & pig fat — offended Hindu & Muslim sepoys |
| Political causes | Doctrine of Lapse, annexations, disrespect to Mughal Emperor, annexation of Oudh |
| Economic causes | Heavy taxation, exploitation by British traders, destruction of Indian handicrafts, drain of wealth |
| Social causes | Social reforms seen as interference ( Widow Remarriage Act, abolition of Sati), racial discrimination |
| Military causes | Indian soldiers paid less, no promotion to high ranks, General Service Enlistment Act (cross-sea) |
| Leaders | Mangal Pandey (Barrackpore), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Tantia Tope, Nana Saheb (Kanpur), Bahadur Shah Zafar (Delhi), Kunwar Singh (Bihar), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow) |
| Centres | Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Arrah, Gwalior, Meerut (start point) |
| Suppression | Delhi recaptured Sept 1857; Rani Lakshmibai died June 1858; revolt crushed by mid-1858 |
| Results | End of EIC rule; Government of India Act 1858 — British Crown took over; Queen Victoria's Proclamation |
| Significance | First major revolt against British; Hindu-Muslim unity; inspired later national movement |
| Reformer | Organisation/Work | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Raja Ram Mohan Roy | Brahmo Samaj (1828) | Father of modern India; opposed Sati, child marriage; advocated women's education; got Sati banned (1829); modern education supporter |
| Henry Vivian Derozio | Young Bengal Movement | Radical thinking, free speech, rationalism; inspired youth to question orthodox practices |
| Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar | — | Widow Remarriage Act (1856); promoted women's education; Bengali prose literature |
| Jyotirao Phule | Satyashodhak Samaj (1873) | Fought caste oppression; girls' school in Pune (1848); wrote Gulamgiri; opposed Brahmanical superiority |
| Savitribai Phule | — | First woman teacher of modern India; worked for women's education & anti-caste reform |
| Swami Dayananda Saraswati | Arya Samaj (1875) | Back to Vedas ("Go back to the Vedas"); opposed idol worship, caste, child marriage; Shuddhi movement; Vedic schools |
| Swami Vivekananda | Ramakrishna Mission (1897) | Vedanta philosophy; Parliament of Religions (1893, Chicago); service to humanity; national pride |
| Annie Besant | Theosophical Society | Home Rule League (1916); women's education; Indian nationalism |
| Syed Ahmad Khan | Aligarh Movement (1875) | Modern education for Muslims; Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College → Aligarh Muslim University; scientific temper |
| Ramakrishna Paramhamsa | — | Saint of Dakshineshwar; teacher of Swami Vivekananda; harmony of all religions |
| Pandita Ramabai | Arya Mahila Samaj | Women's education; social reform; wrote about women's conditions in India |
| Phase | Period | Key Events & Leaders |
|---|---|---|
| Moderate Phase (1885–1905) | 1885–1905 | INC founded (1885) by A.O. Hume; moderates: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, G.K. Gokhale; petitions, dialogues, constitutional methods; demanded self-rule; economic critique (drain of wealth) by Dadabhai Naoroji |
| Extremist Phase (1905–1919) | 1905–1919 | Partition of Bengal (1905, Lord Curzon) — Swadeshi & Boycott; extremists: Bal Gangadhar Tilak ("Swaraj is my birthright"), Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal); Surat Split (1907); Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms); Lucknow Pact (1916); Home Rule Leagues (Tilak & Besant, 1916) |
| Gandhian Phase (1919–1947) | 1919–1947 | Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa (1915); Rowlatt Act (1919) → Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919); Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22); Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34); Quit India Movement (1942); INA trials; Cabinet Mission; Mountbatten Plan; Independence (Aug 15, 1947) |
| Movement | Years | Cause/Trigger | Methods | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-Cooperation | 1920–22 | Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat Movement | Boycott of schools, courts, councils, foreign goods; surrender of titles; peaceful protests | Chauri Chaura violence (Feb 1922) → Gandhi suspended; nationwide awakening; Congress became mass movement |
| Civil Disobedience | 1930–34 | 11 demands to Irwin (including salt tax abolition); none accepted | Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) — 385 km, 78 volunteers; salt law broken; boycott of foreign cloth | Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931); Round Table Conferences; Gandhi went as sole representative of Congress |
| Quit India | 1942 | Failure of Cripps Mission (1942); WWII pressure; demand for immediate independence | "Do or Die" slogan; mass uprising; parallel governments (Satara, Ballia, Midnapore) | Brutally suppressed; but made British realise India untenable to hold; INA trials added pressure |
| Event | Year | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Cabinet Mission | 1946 | Grouping plan; provinces into 3 groups; rejected by Muslim League; Interim Government formed |
| Direct Action Day | 1946 | Muslim League called for protest; led to communal riots in Calcutta |
| Indian Independence Act | July 1947 | Passed by British Parliament; created two dominions: India & Pakistan |
| Mountbatten Plan (June 3 Plan) | June 1947 | Partition of India; referendum in NWFP & Sylhet; princely states to join either |
| Independence | Aug 15, 1947 | India: Jawaharlal Nehru (PM); Pakistan: Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Governor-General) |
| Partition aftermath | 1947–48 | Massive migration (10+ million displaced); communal violence; refugee crisis; integration of princely states by Sardar Patel & V.P. Menon |
| Integration of States | 1947–50 | Sardar Patel — Instrument of Accession; 562+ princely states merged; Hyderabad (Operation Polo), Junagadh, Kashmir |
| Leader | Contribution | Title/Association |
|---|---|---|
| Mahatma Gandhi | Father of the Nation; Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India; Satyagraha; Khadi; Champaran, Dandi, Bardoli | Bapu, Mahatma; leader of Indian freedom struggle |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | First PM of independent India; socialist vision; Panchsheel; Non-Aligned Movement; author of Discovery of India | Chacha Nehru; architect of modern India |
| Subhas Chandra Bose | Formed Indian National Army (INA/Azad Hind Fauj); "Give me blood, I shall give you freedom"; Forward Bloc | Netaji; escaped house arrest, sought help from Germany & Japan |
| Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | Integration of 562+ princely states; Iron Man of India; first Home Minister; Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) | Iron Man of India; Bismarck of India |
| Bhagat Singh | Revolutionary nationalist; Hindustan Socialist Republican Association; Assembly bombing (1929); executed March 23, 1931 | Shaheed-e-Azam; symbol of youth sacrifice |
| Bal Gangadhar Tilak | Extremist leader; "Swaraj is my birthright"; Ganapati & Shivaji festivals to spread nationalism; Home Rule League | Lokmanya Tilak; "Father of Indian unrest" (British label) |
| Lala Lajpat Rai | Extremist leader; Punjab Kesari; led protest against Simon Commission; died due to lathi charge (1928) | Punjab Kesari; part of Lal-Bal-Pal trio |
| Dadabhai Naoroji | Moderate leader; first Indian in British Parliament; propounded "Drain of Wealth" theory; Poverty & Un-British Rule | Grand Old Man of India; Father of Indian Economics |
| Chittaranjan Das | Desbandhu; founded Swaraj Party (1923) with Motilal Nehru; defended INA prisoners | Deshbandhu; leader of Bengal |
| Dr. B.R. Ambedkar | Chairman of Drafting Committee; champion of social justice; Dalit movement; drafted Indian Constitution | Father of Indian Constitution; Babasaheb |
| Mangal Pandey | First martyr of 1857 Revolt; Barrackpore; refused to use greased cartridges; attacked British officers | First freedom fighter of 1857 |
| Rani Lakshmibai | Queen of Jhansi; fought in 1857 Revolt; died fighting British at Gwalior (June 1858) | Jhansi ki Rani; symbol of women's bravery |
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| French Revolution | 1789 | Overthrow of monarchy; Declaration of Rights of Man; Liberty, Equality, Fraternity; inspired nationalist movements worldwide |
| Reign of Terror | 1793–94 | Robespierre's rule; radical phase; execution of king & queen; ultimately led to rise of Napoleon |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | 1799–1815 | Napoleonic Code (civil laws); spread of nationalism across Europe; defeated at Waterloo (1815) |
| Industrial Revolution | 1760–1840 | Began in England; machine production replaced hand production; factories, urbanisation; social transformation |
| Unification of Italy | 1861 | Cavour, Garibaldi, Mazzini unified Italian states; Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under Victor Emmanuel II |
| Unification of Germany | 1871 | Bismarck (Prussia) unified German states through "Blood and Iron" policy; Prussian dominance |
| World War I | 1914–18 | Allied vs Central Powers; Treaty of Versailles (1919); redrew European boundaries; economic devastation |
| Russian Revolution | 1917 | Tsar overthrown; Bolsheviks (Lenin) established socialist state; USSR formed (1922); first communist government |
| Great Depression | 1929–39 | Wall Street Crash (1929); worldwide economic crisis; mass unemployment; affected Indian trade & economy |
| Rise of Fascism | 1922 (Italy) / 1933 (Germany) | Mussolini (Italy), Hitler (Germany); Nazi ideology — racial supremacy, anti-Semitism; Holocaust; led to WWII |
| World War II | 1939–45 | Allied victory over Axis Powers; Holocaust; atomic bombs on Hiroshima & Nagasaki; UN formed (1945) |
| United Nations | 1945 | Formed after WWII; aims: peace, security, cooperation; UN Charter; Security Council; agencies: UNESCO, WHO, UNICEF |
| Layer | Details |
|---|---|
| Crust | Outermost solid layer; 0–35 km thick (continental) or 5–10 km (oceanic); made of silicate rocks; contains minerals & fossils |
| Mantle | Below crust (35–2900 km); semi-molten (asthenosphere) and solid (lithosphere); convection currents drive plate movement |
| Outer Core | 2900–5100 km; liquid iron and nickel; generates Earth's magnetic field |
| Inner Core | 5100–6371 km; solid iron and nickel; extremely hot (~5000°C) but solid due to immense pressure |
| Lithosphere | Crust + uppermost part of mantle; broken into tectonic plates (7 major, several minor) |
| Asthenosphere | Upper part of mantle; semi-molten; plates float and move on this layer |
| Zone | Latitude | Features | Example Regions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Torrid (Tropical) | 0°–23.5° | Hot year-round; heavy rainfall; dense vegetation; no distinct seasons | Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, Indonesia, Malaysia |
| Temperate | 23.5°–66.5° | Moderate temperature; four seasons; moderate rainfall | Europe, USA, China, parts of India (northern plains) |
| Frigid (Polar) | 66.5°–90° | Extremely cold; ice caps; very little vegetation; polar nights/days | Antarctica, Arctic, Greenland, Northern Russia |
| Division | Key Features | Important Ranges/Regions |
|---|---|---|
| Northern Mountains (Himalayas) | Young fold mountains; three parallel ranges; source of major rivers; snow-capped peaks | Greater Himalayas (Himadri): Everest, K2, Kanchenjunga; Middle Himalayas (Himachal): Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar; Outer Himalayas (Shiwalik): low hills |
| Northern Plains (Indo-Gangetic) | Formed by alluvium deposits; very fertile; flat; densely populated | Bhabar (pebbles, porous), Terai (wet, forested, re-emerging streams), Bhangar (old alluvium, calcareous), Khadar (new alluvium, fertile), Delta region |
| Peninsular Plateau (Deccan) | Tableland; ancient crystalline rocks; broad & shallow valleys; black soil | Deccan Plateau, Chota Nagpur Plateau, Malwa Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau; Western & Eastern Ghats |
| Coastal Plains | Along Arabian Sea (Western) & Bay of Bengal (Eastern); fertile; port cities | Western: Gujarat coast, Konkan, Malabar; Eastern: Coromandel Coast, Northern Circars |
| Islands | Two groups of islands; coral & volcanic origin; rich biodiversity | Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal); Lakshadweep Islands (Arabian Sea, coral atolls) |
| The Thar Desert | Western India (Rajasthan); arid; sandy; very little rainfall; extreme temperatures | Covered with sand dunes; Luni is the only river; cactus & thorny vegetation |
| River | Type | Origin | Length | Tributaries | Flows Into |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ganga | Himalayan | Gangotri Glacier (Uttarakhand) | 2,525 km | Yamuna, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son | Bay of Bengal (Ganga Delta) |
| Brahmaputra | Himalayan | Angsi Glacier (Tibet, as Tsangpo) | 2,900 km | Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Manas | Bay of Bengal (Meghna Delta, Bangladesh) |
| Yamuna | Himalayan | Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) | 1,376 km | Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Sindh | Merges with Ganga at Prayagraj |
| Godavari | Peninsular | Trimbakeshwar (Maharashtra) | 1,465 km | Pranhita, Indravati, Wainganga, Wardha | Bay of Bengal (largest peninsular river) |
| Krishna | Peninsular | Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra) | 1,400 km | Tungabhadra, Koyna, Bhima, Musi | Bay of Bengal |
| Narmada | Peninsular | Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh) | 1,312 km | Hiran, Barna, Kolar, Sher | Arabian Sea (flows westward in rift valley) |
| Tapi (Tapti) | Peninsular | Betul (Madhya Pradesh) | 724 km | Purna, Girna, Bichi | Arabian Sea (flows westward) |
| Mahanadi | Peninsular | Chhattisgarh (Sihawa) | 858 km | Shivnath, Hasdeo, Jonk, Tel | Bay of Bengal (Hirakud Dam) |
| Indus | Himalayan | Lake Mansarovar (Tibet) | 3,180 km | Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej | Arabian Sea (flows through Pakistan) |
| Season | Months | Features | Wind Direction |
|---|---|---|---|
| Winter (Cold weather) | Dec–Feb | Low temperature; clear skies; northern plains cold (5-10°C); southern India warm; NE monsoon gives rain to Tamil Nadu | NE winds (land to sea) |
| Summer (Hot weather) | Mar–May | Hot & dry; loo in northern plains; thunderstorms (mango showers in Kerala, Kalbaisakhi in Bengal) | SW winds developing |
| Southwest Monsoon | Jun–Sep | Heavy rainfall; brings 75-80% of annual rainfall; two branches (Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal); breaks first at Kerala coast (June 1) | SW winds (sea to land) |
| Retreating Monsoon | Oct–Nov | Clear skies in north; cyclonic storms in Bay of Bengal; heavy rain in Tamil Nadu coast (NE monsoon) | NE winds (land to sea) |
| Type | Region | Rainfall | Trees/Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tropical Evergreen | Western Ghats, NE India, Andaman Islands | >200 cm | Dense, multi-layered; trees don't shed leaves; rosewood, mahogany, ebony, rubber |
| Tropical Deciduous (Monsoon) | Most of India — plains, plateau, hills | 70–200 cm | Most widespread; trees shed leaves in dry season; teak, sal, sandalwood, shisham |
| Tropical Thorn/Desert | Rajasthan, Gujarat, semi-arid regions | <50 cm | Sparse; deep roots; cactus, babool, kikar, palm; thorny bushes |
| Montane (Mountain) | Himalayas — varies with altitude | Varies | Zonal: tropical at base → temperate → coniferous → alpine → snow line; oak, pine, deodar, silver fir |
| Mangrove (Tidal) | Coastal areas, deltas, islands | — | Salt-tolerant; breathe through pneumatophores; Sundari trees (Sundarbans), mangrove forests |
| Littoral & Swamp | Damp/marshy coastal areas | — | Tidal forests; found in deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna |
| Protected Area | State | Known For |
|---|---|---|
| Jim Corbett NP | Uttarakhand | First national park of India (1936); Project Tiger (1973 launched here); Bengal tigers, elephants, leopards |
| Kaziranga NP | Assam | One-horned rhinoceros (2/3rd world population); UNESCO World Heritage; swamp deer, wild buffalo, elephants |
| Gir National Park | Gujarat | Asiatic lions — only natural habitat; ~674 lions (2020 census); leopard, deer, crocodile |
| Ranthambore NP | Rajasthan | Bengal tigers; Ranthambore Fort (UNESCO); deciduous forests; lakes within park |
| Sundarbans NP | West Bengal | Royal Bengal Tigers; mangrove forests (Sundari trees); UNESCO; Ganga-Brahmaputra delta |
| Kanha NP | Madhya Pradesh | Barasingha (swamp deer — hard ground); tiger reserve; inspiration for Jungle Book (Kipling) |
| Bandipur NP | Karnataka | Tigers, elephants; part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve; Project Tiger; Deccan Plateau |
| Periyar NP | Kerala | Elephants; Periyar Lake; boat safari; tiger reserve; evergreen forests |
| Hemis NP | Ladakh | Snow leopards; high-altitude national park; largest in India (4,400 sq km); Buddhist monasteries |
| Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve | TN/Karnataka/Kerala | First biosphere reserve in India; UNESCO; tigers, elephants, lion-tailed macaque; Western Ghats |
| Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve | Uttarakhand | UNESCO; high-altitude Himalayan ecosystem; snow leopard, Himalayan bear, musk deer |
| Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve | West Bengal | UNESCO; largest mangrove forest; tiger reserve; unique tidal ecosystem |
| Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve | Tamil Nadu | UNESCO; coral reefs, dugongs, sea turtles, mangroves; marine biodiversity hotspot |
| Soil Type | Region | Features | Crops Grown |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alluvial | Northern plains, river deltas | Most fertile; deposited by rivers; two types: bangar (old) & khadar (new); rich in potash but poor in phosphorus | Wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton ( Indo-Gangetic plain — breadbasket of India) |
| Black (Regur/Black Cotton) | Deccan Plateau (Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP) | High water-retaining capacity; rich in iron, lime, calcium; poor in nitrogen; cracks in dry season | Cotton (best), soyabean, jowar, pulses |
| Red | Eastern & southern parts of Deccan Plateau | Red colour due to iron diffusion; porous; less fertile; needs manure | Millets, pulses, tobacco, ragi |
| Laterite | Western Ghats, parts of MP, Orissa, Kerala | Intense leaching; rich in iron oxide, poor in organic matter; formed by weathering | Cashew nuts, tea, coffee, coconut (unsuitable for regular agriculture) |
| Arid/Desert | Western Rajasthan, dry regions | Sandy, saline; low moisture; low humus; poor in nitrogen | Cactus, bajra, guar (fodder) |
| Mountain/Forest | Himalayan region, hilly areas | Varies with altitude; rich in organic matter; acidic | Tea, coffee, spices, fruits, potatoes |
| Season | Crops (Examples) | Sowing | Harvesting | Key Producing States |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kharif (Monsoon) | Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, groundnut, soyabean, pulses (arhar, moong) | June–July (with monsoon onset) | Sept–Oct | West Bengal (rice), Maharashtra (cotton), Karnataka, MP, Andhra Pradesh |
| Rabi (Winter) | Wheat, barley, gram, mustard, linseed, peas, lentils (masoor) | Oct–Nov (after monsoon retreats) | March–April | UP, Punjab, Haryana (wheat belt); MP, Rajasthan |
| Zaid (Summer/Cash Crops) | Cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, bitter gourd, vegetables, fodder crops | March–April | June–July | Throughout India (irrigated areas) |
| Mineral | Type | Major Producing Areas | Uses |
|---|---|---|---|
| Coal | Conventional energy | Jharkhand (Jharia), Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, MP | Thermal power, steel, cement, chemical industries |
| Petroleum | Conventional energy | Mumbai High (offshore), Gujarat, Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya) | Fuel, petrol, diesel, petrochemicals, plastics |
| Natural Gas | Conventional energy | Mumbai High, Gujarat (Kolkata), Assam, Andhra Pradesh (KG Basin) | Fuel, fertilizer, electricity generation, CNG |
| Iron Ore | Metallic mineral | Odisha (Sundergarh), Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka (Bellary), Goa | Steel production, Pig iron |
| Bauxite | Metallic mineral | Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh | Aluminium extraction |
| Mica | Non-metallic mineral | Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Kodarma — world leader), Rajasthan, AP | Electrical industry, cosmetics, paints |
| Limestone | Non-metallic mineral | Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu | Cement, iron & steel, chemicals |
| Gold | Metallic mineral | Karnataka (Kolar — deepest mine), Jharkhand (Hutti) | Jewellery, investment, electronics |
| Industry | Major Centres | Factors for Location |
|---|---|---|
| Cotton Textile | Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Indore, Coimbatore, Kanpur, Madurai | Cotton growing areas, humid climate (yarn strength), labour, port (export), capital |
| Jute Textile | Kolkata, Howrah, Titagarh, Bansberia | Raw jute from WB; Ganga-Brahmaputra delta; Hooghly river water; cheap labour |
| Iron & Steel | Jamshedpur (Tata), Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bokaro, Salem, Vishakhapatnam | Iron ore, coal, limestone, water, labour, market — near raw material sources |
| Cement | Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka | Limestone, coal, gypsum, power supply, market access |
| IT & Software | Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, NCR (Gurgaon, Noida) | Skilled workforce, infrastructure, climate, international connectivity |
| Automobile | Gurgaon, Chennai, Pune, Bengaluru, Jamshedpur, Kolkata | Market, labour, port access, ancillary industries, transport links |
| Petrochemical | Mumbai, Barauni, Koyali, Mathura, Haldia | Near refineries; raw material (naphtha); market & transport infrastructure |
| Sugar | UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, AP | Sugarcane growing areas; near raw material source (perishable) |
| Mode | Features | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Roadways | Largest network; flexible; door-to-door; includes National Highways, State Highways, District Roads, Village Roads; Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata | National Highways: ~1,40,000 km; NH-44 (Srinagar to Kanyakumari) is the longest (~3,745 km); Bharatmala project |
| Railways | Fourth largest in world; nationalised (1951); 16 zones; goods + passenger; lifeline of nation | ~68,000 km route; Indian Railways is the largest employer; High-speed rail (Mumbai-Ahmedabad bullet train); Konkan Railway (760 km along west coast) |
| Waterways | Cheapest for heavy/bulky goods; inland waterways & ocean routes; NW-1 (Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly), NW-2 (Brahmaputra), NW-3 (Kerala backwaters) | Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI); 111 declared national waterways; major ports: Mumbai, Kandla, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip |
| Airways | Fastest; expensive; suitable for perishable goods & remote areas; international connectivity | Indira Gandhi International (Delhi) — busiest; Chhatrapati Shivaji (Mumbai); major airlines: Air India, Indigo, SpiceJet |
| Pipelines | Transport liquids/gases; cheapest for long distances; continuous flow | Used for petroleum, natural gas, water; Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) pipeline; Mumbai High to inland |
| Right | Article(s) | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| Right to Equality | 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 | Equality before law (Art 14); no discrimination (Art 15); equality of opportunity in public employment (Art 16); abolition of untouchability (Art 17); abolition of titles (Art 18) |
| Right to Freedom | 19, 20, 21, 21A, 22 | Six freedoms under Art 19 (speech, assembly, association, movement, residence, profession); protection from conviction (Art 20); right to life & personal liberty (Art 21); right to education (Art 21A); protection against arrest (Art 22) |
| Right against Exploitation | 23, 24 | Prohibition of traffic in human beings & forced labour (Art 23); prohibition of child labour in factories/mines (Art 24) |
| Right to Freedom of Religion | 25–28 | Freedom of conscience & free profession, practice & propagation (Art 25); freedom to manage religious affairs (Art 26); no religious tax (Art 27); no religious instruction in state-funded institutions (Art 28) |
| Cultural & Educational Rights | 29, 30 | Protection of minority interests (Art 29); right of minorities to establish & administer educational institutions (Art 30) |
| Right to Constitutional Remedies | 32 | Citizens can move Supreme Court for enforcement of Fundamental Rights; Dr. Ambedkar called Art 32 "heart & soul of the Constitution" |
| House | Lok Sabha (Lower House) | Rajya Sabha (Upper House/Council of States) |
|---|---|---|
| Members | 543 elected + 2 nominated (Anglo-Indian) | 245 — 233 elected by state legislatures + 12 nominated (literature, science, art, social service) |
| Tenure | 5 years (can be dissolved earlier) | Permanent body; 1/3rd members retire every 2 years; 6-year term per member |
| Minimum age | 25 years | 30 years |
| Election | Direct election by citizens (First Past The Post) | Indirect election by elected members of State Legislative Assemblies (proportional representation) |
| Chairman/Speaker | Speaker (elected from among members) | Vice-President of India (ex-officio Chairman); Deputy Chairman elected by members |
| Money bills | Only Lok Sabha can introduce; Rajya Sabha can suggest but not amend | Can delay money bill for max 14 days; joint sitting if disagreement |
| Joint sitting | President can summon joint sitting (Art 108) | Joint sitting possible for ordinary bills only, not money or constitutional amendment bills |
| Quorum | 1/10th of total membership | 1/10th of total membership |
| Post | Details |
|---|---|
| President | Head of State; Constitutional head; first citizen; elected indirectly by Electoral College (MPs + MLAs); term 5 years; can be re-elected; impeached for violation of Constitution (Art 61); can promulgate ordinances; appoints PM, Governors, judges, Attorney General |
| Vice-President | Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha; elected by MPs of both houses (electoral college); term 5 years; acts as President when President is absent/vacancy; can be removed by Rajya Sabha resolution |
| Prime Minister | Real executive head; leader of majority party in Lok Sabha; appointed by President; advises President on appointments; heads Council of Ministers; is the link between President and Council of Ministers |
| Council of Ministers | PM + Cabinet Ministers + Ministers of State + Deputy Ministers; collectively responsible to Lok Sabha (Art 75); advise President (Art 74 — binding); can be dismissed by President if they lose majority in Lok Sabha |
| Aspect | Supreme Court | High Courts |
|---|---|---|
| Established | January 28, 1950 | Under Constitution — one per state/UT; 25 HC currently |
| Location | New Delhi | In respective state capitals (some states share) |
| Head | Chief Justice of India (CJI) | Chief Justice of the High Court |
| Judges | 34 (including CJI) | Varies by HC; strength varies |
| Appointment | By President on collegium recommendation (senior-most judges) | By President on collegium recommendation (CJI + 2 senior-most SC judges + HC CJ + 2 senior-most HC judges) |
| Jurisdiction | Original, Appellate, Advisory, Review | Original, Appellate (within state), Supervisory over subordinate courts |
| Original jurisdiction | Disputes between Centre & States; enforcement of Fundamental Rights (Art 32 — Writ Jurisdiction) | Enforcement of Fundamental Rights (Art 226 — wider than SC writ jurisdiction) |
| Appellate jurisdiction | Appeals against HC decisions; constitutional matters; civil (Rs 5 lakh+), criminal | Appeals against subordinate court decisions |
| Writs | Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto | All 5 writs (Art 226) — wider scope than Art 32 |
| PIL (Public Interest Litigation) | Can be filed by any person/group on behalf of those who cannot approach court | PIL can be filed in HC too |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Federalism | Division of power between Centre and States; India has quasi-federal structure (unitary bias — Centre is stronger); three lists: Union, State, Concurrent |
| Union List (List I) | 100 subjects (originally 97); Defence, Foreign Affairs, Banking, Railways, Atomic Energy, Citizenship; only Parliament can legislate |
| State List (List II) | 61 subjects (originally 66); Police, Public Health, Agriculture, Land, Local Govt; only State Legislature can legislate |
| Concurrent List (List III) | 52 subjects (originally 47); Education, Forests, Marriage, Trade Unions, Criminal Law; both Centre and State can legislate; Centre law prevails in conflict |
| Residuary subjects | Subjects not in any list — Parliament has exclusive power (e.g., Cyber law, GST) |
| Local Government | Panchayati Raj (rural — 73rd Amendment) & Municipalities (urban — 74th Amendment); 3-tier system; reservations for SC/ST/Women |
| Amendment | Year | Key Provisions |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Amendment | 1951 | Added reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech (Art 19); validated Zamindari abolition laws; 9th Schedule added |
| 42nd Amendment | 1976 | Known as "Mini Constitution"; added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; Fundamental Duties (Part IV-A); emergency provisions expanded |
| 44th Amendment | 1978 | Reversed many 42nd Amendment changes; removed Right to Property as FR (made legal right under Art 300A); emergency provisions curtailed |
| 61st Amendment | 1989 | Reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years (universal adult suffrage for 18+) |
| 73rd Amendment | 1992 | Constitutional status to Panchayati Raj; 3-tier local government in rural areas; reservations for SC/ST/Women (1/3rd) |
| 74th Amendment | 1992 | Constitutional status to Municipalities (Nagar Palikas); 3-tier urban local government; reservations for SC/ST/Women |
| 86th Amendment | 2002 | Added 11th Fundamental Duty (education for 6–14 year olds); made Right to Education a FR (Art 21A) |
| 91st Amendment | 2003 | Limited Council of Ministers size (15% of Lok Sabha strength); strengthened anti-defection law (2/3rd rule removed) |
| 100th Amendment | 2015 | India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement; exchanged enclaves; demarcated boundary |
| 101st Amendment (GST) | 2016 | Goods & Services Tax (GST); unified indirect tax; Art 246A — concurrent power to levy GST; GST Council |
| 103rd Amendment | 2019 | 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in education & government jobs (Art 15(6), 16(6)) |
| 104th Amendment | 2020 | Extended SC/ST reservation in Lok Sabha & Assemblies for 10 years (until 2030); removed reserved seats for Anglo-Indians |
| 106th Amendment (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam) | 2023 | 1/3rd reservation for women in Lok Sabha & State Assemblies (Art 330A, 332A); to be implemented after delimitation |
| Component | Details |
|---|---|
| Governor | Constitutional head of state; appointed by President (5-year term); similar powers to President at state level; can summon, prorogue, dissolve Vidhan Sabha |
| Chief Minister | Real executive head; leader of majority party in Vidhan Sabha; appointed by Governor; Council of Ministers collectively responsible to Vidhan Sabha |
| Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) | Lower house; directly elected; 5-year term; maximum strength varies by state (60–500); money bills originate here |
| Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council) | Upper house; exists in only 6 states (UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, AP); indirect election; 1/3rd retires every 2 years |
| High Court | Highest judicial authority in state; Chief Justice + other judges; writ jurisdiction (Art 226 — wider than SC); supervisory over subordinate courts |
| Subordinate courts | District & Sessions Courts; Civil Judge (Junior/Senior Division); Magistrates (1st/2nd class); handle most cases at grassroots level |
| Panchayati Raj (rural) | 3 tiers: Gram Panchayat → Panchayat Samiti → Zilla Parishad; 73rd Amendment; reservations for SC/ST/Women (1/3rd each) |
| Municipalities (urban) | 3 types: Nagar Panchayat (transitional), Municipal Council (smaller city), Municipal Corporation (large city); 74th Amendment |
| Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Development | Process of improvement in quality of life, economic growth, social justice, and freedom; not just income growth |
| Per Capita Income | Total income of country divided by total population; higher PCI generally means higher development; World Bank classifies countries based on PCI |
| HDI (Human Development Index) | UNDP measure; combines: (1) Life expectancy at birth, (2) Mean years of schooling, (3) Per capita income (PPP $); range 0–1; Norway highest; India ~0.644 |
| Sustainable development | Development without damaging the environment; meeting present needs without compromising future (Brundtland, 1987) |
| GDP (Gross Domestic Product) | Total value of all final goods & services produced within a country in a year; indicator of economic size |
| GNP (Gross National Product) | GDP + Net factor income from abroad; includes income of nationals working abroad |
| National Income | Total income earned by all factors of production; measures: GDP, GNP, NNP (Net National Product = GNP − Depreciation) |
| Literacy rate | Percentage of people who can read & write (age 7+); India ~77.7% (Census 2011); higher in Kerala (~94%), lowest in Bihar (~63%) |
| IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) | Number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births; indicator of health services; lower IMR = better development; India ~28 (2020) |
| Birth rate / Death rate | Number of live births / deaths per 1,000 population per year; declining in India due to family planning & healthcare |
| Sector | Description | Examples | Employment Share |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary (Agriculture) | Extraction of natural resources; direct use of natural products | Agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, animal husbandry | ~42% of workforce (but only ~15% of GDP) |
| Secondary (Industrial) | Manufacturing and processing of raw materials into finished goods | Factories, construction, power generation, textiles, steel, automobiles | ~22% of workforce (~25% of GDP) |
| Tertiary (Services) | Provides services rather than goods; supports other sectors | Banking, education, healthcare, transport, tourism, IT, government services, trade | ~36% of workforce (~60% of GDP) |
| Feature | Organised Sector | Unorganised Sector |
|---|---|---|
| Registration | Registered with government; follows rules | Not registered; outside government control |
| Job security | Yes — permanent employment | No — temporary, casual, insecure |
| Working conditions | Regulated hours, safe environment | Often poor, unsafe, long hours |
| Benefits | PF, ESI, gratuity, pension, leave, medical | No benefits; no social security |
| Fixed hours | Yes — usually 8 hours/day | No fixed hours; overtime not paid |
| Examples | Government offices, banks, schools, hospitals, MNCs | Daily wage workers, street vendors, domestic workers, agricultural labourers, small workshops |
| Trade unions | Can form unions; collective bargaining | No unions; individual bargaining |
| Tax compliance | Proper tax filing; TDS | Mostly untaxed; informal economy |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Food security definition | Availability, accessibility, and affordability of food for all people at all times (FAO definition); includes food absorption/utilisation (nutrition) |
| Dimensions | Availability (enough food produced), Accessibility (people can buy/obtain food), Absorption (nutrition — clean water, health services) |
| Buffer stock | Stock of food grains (wheat, rice) maintained by FCI through MSP purchases; used for PDS & during shortages; stored in FCI godowns |
| PDS (Public Distribution System) | Government distributes food grains at subsidised prices through ration shops; BPL families get rice at Rs 3/kg, wheat Rs 2/kg (Antyodaya even cheaper) |
| MSP (Minimum Support Price) | Government announces price before sowing season; FCI buys crops at MSP to protect farmers from market fluctuations; covers wheat, rice, pulses, oilseeds |
| NFSA (2013) | National Food Security Act — covers 67% population (75% rural, 50% urban); 5 kg foodgrain/person/month at subsidised rates; maternity benefits; Mid-Day Meal |
| Mid-Day Meal Scheme | Free lunch in government schools (Class 1–8); improves nutrition, attendance, enrollment; covers ~12 crore children |
| ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services) | Provides nutrition, immunisation, health check-ups for children (0–6 years) and pregnant/lactating mothers; anganwadi centres |
| Challenges | Leakage in PDS (black marketing, ghost cards), rotting of food grains in FCI godowns, malnutrition, regional disparities, climate impact on agriculture |
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Poverty line | Minimum level of income/consumption needed to satisfy basic needs; varies by state & rural/urban; Tendulkar Committee & Rangarajan Committee defined poverty lines |
| Tendulkar Committee (2009) | Rural: Rs 816/month; Urban: Rs 1000/month (per capita expenditure); based on food, education, health, clothing, transport |
| Rangarajan Committee (2014) | Rural: Rs 972/month; Urban: Rs 1407/month; broader basket of goods |
| Vulnerable groups | SC/ST, casual labourers, landless labourers, women-headed households, children, elderly, disabled, migrants |
| Poverty estimates (2011-12) | About 22% of India's population below poverty line (~27 crore people); rural poverty higher than urban |
| Inter-state disparities | Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand, MP, UP — higher poverty; Kerala, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Goa — lower poverty |
| Global poverty line | World Bank: $2.15/day (2017 PPP) — about 10% of Indians below this line (declining rapidly) |
| Poverty alleviation programmes | MGNREGA (100 days employment), PMGSY (rural roads), NRLM (SHGs), PM Awas Yojana (housing), PM Kisan (farmer income), NSAP (pension), PM Garib Kalyan |
| MGNREGA (2005) | Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act — guarantees 100 days of wage employment per year to rural households; right to work; 1/3rd reserved for women |
| Consumer Right | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Right to Safety | Protection from hazardous goods and services | Safety standards for electrical appliances, food, medicines; ISI mark, FSSAI |
| Right to Information | Consumers must be informed about quality, quantity, price, ingredients | Expiry dates on food, MRP, nutritional info, ISI/FSSAI/Agmark labels |
| Right to Choose | Freedom to choose from a variety of goods and services at competitive prices | No forced purchases; variety of brands available; right to select |
| Right to be Heard | Consumer interests must be heard in decision-making forums | Consumer forums, complaints, grievance cells, public hearings |
| Right to Redressal | Right to fair settlement of genuine grievances; compensation for loss | Consumer courts (District, State, National); replacement/refund/compensation |
| Right to Consumer Education | Right to acquire knowledge and skills to be an informed consumer | Awareness campaigns, consumer organisations, school education on rights |
| Programme/Scheme | Year | Objective & Features |
|---|---|---|
| MGNREGA | 2005 | 100 days guaranteed wage employment per rural household; right to work; 1/3rd women reservation; works: water conservation, land development, afforestation |
| PM Kisan Samman Nidhi | 2019 | Rs 6,000/year direct income support to farmer families in 3 instalments; ~12 crore beneficiaries |
| PM Awas Yojana (PMAY) | 2015 | Housing for all by 2022; pucca houses with basic amenities; rural & urban components; subsidies on interest |
| PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana | 2020 | Free food grains (5 kg wheat/rice + 1 kg chana) to ~80 crore people during COVID and beyond; extension of NFSA |
| Jan Dhan Yojana | 2014 | Financial inclusion — bank accounts for all; overdraft facility, RuPay debit card, insurance; ~50 crore accounts opened |
| Beti Bachao Beti Padhao | 2015 | Save and educate the girl child; address declining child sex ratio; improve enrolment of girls in education |
| Swachh Bharat Mission | 2014 | Clean India — open defecation free (ODF) villages; sanitation; solid waste management; built ~12 crore toilets |
| Make in India | 2014 | Promote manufacturing in India; attract FDI; create jobs; 25 sectors identified; improve ease of doing business |
| Digital India | 2015 | Digital infrastructure; digital services; digital literacy; UPI payments, Aadhaar, DigiLocker, e-governance |
| National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) | 2005 | Improve rural healthcare; reduce IMR & MMR; strengthen PHCs, CHCs; ASHA workers; merged into NHM |
| Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) | 2001 | Universal elementary education (6–14 years); right to education; school infrastructure; teacher training; merged with RMSA → Samagra Shiksha |
| National Food Security Act (NFSA) | 2013 | 67% population covered; 5 kg foodgrain/month at subsidised rates; Mid-Day Meal; ICDS; maternity benefit (Rs 6,000) |
| Year/Period | Event |
|---|---|
| c. 3300–2600 BCE | Early Harappan Civilisation |
| c. 2600–1900 BCE | Mature Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation |
| c. 1500–1000 BCE | Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic) |
| c. 1000–600 BCE | Later Vedic Period; rise of Janapadas & Mahajanapadas |
| c. 563–483 BCE | Life of Gautama Buddha |
| c. 599–527 BCE | Life of Lord Mahavira (Jainism) |
| 327–325 BCE | Alexander's invasion of India |
| 321 BCE | Chandragupta Maurya founds Mauryan Empire |
| c. 273–232 BCE | Ashoka's reign; Kalinga War (261 BCE); adoption of Buddhism |
| 185 BCE | Fall of Mauryan Empire; Shunga Dynasty begins |
| c. 78 CE | Kanishka's reign (Kushana Empire); start of Saka Era |
| 320 CE | Chandragupta I founds Gupta Empire |
| c. 350–400 CE | Samudragupta's reign — "Napoleon of India" |
| c. 400–415 CE | Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) — Golden Age peak |
| c. 499 CE | Aryabhata — Aryabhatiya (zero, astronomy, pi) |
| c. 550 CE | Fall of Gupta Empire |
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 712 CE | Arab invasion under Muhammad bin Qasim — Sindh conquered |
| 1192 CE | Second Battle of Tarain — Prithviraj Chauhan defeated by Muhammad Ghori; Delhi Sultanate begins |
| 1206 CE | Qutbuddin Aibak founds Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty; Delhi Sultanate established |
| 1236 CE | Razia Sultan becomes ruler — only woman to rule Delhi Sultanate |
| 1290 CE | Khilji Dynasty begins — Jalaluddin Khilji |
| 1298 CE | Alauddin Khilji repels Mongol invasions |
| 1320 CE | Tughlaq Dynasty — Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq |
| 1336 CE | Vijayanagara Empire founded (Harihara & Bukka) |
| 1347 CE | Bahmani Kingdom founded (Hasan Gangu) |
| 1526 CE | First Battle of Panipat — Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi; Mughal Empire established |
| 1530 CE | Humayun ascends Mughal throne |
| 1540 CE | Sher Shah Suri defeats Humayun — Sur Empire |
| 1555 CE | Humayun regains Delhi |
| 1556 CE | Akbar becomes Emperor at age 13; Second Battle of Panipat |
| 1571 CE | Fatehpur Sikri founded by Akbar |
| 1600 CE | East India Company founded in London |
| 1605 CE | Jahangir's reign begins |
| 1627 CE | Shah Jahan becomes Emperor |
| 1632–1653 CE | Taj Mahal constructed |
| 1658 CE | Aurangzeb becomes Emperor after imprisoning Shah Jahan |
| 1707 CE | Death of Aurangzeb — beginning of Mughal decline |
| 1739 CE | Nadir Shah's invasion; sack of Delhi |
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1757 | Battle of Plassey — British defeat Siraj-ud-Daulah |
| 1764 | Battle of Buxar — British establish dominance |
| 1765 | Diwani rights granted to British (Bengal) |
| 1773 | Regulating Act — first parliamentary control over EIC |
| 1784 | Pitt's India Act — Board of Control established |
| 1793 | Permanent Settlement (Cornwallis) in Bengal |
| 1829 | Sati abolished (Raja Ram Mohan Roy's efforts) |
| 1833 | Charter Act — EIC trade monopoly ends |
| 1853 | First railway line (Bombay to Thane); first telegraph |
| 1857 | First War of Independence / Sepoy Mutiny / 1857 Revolt |
| 1858 | Government of India Act — Crown takes over; Viceroy system |
| 1869 | Birth of Mahatma Gandhi (Oct 2, Porbandar) |
| 1885 | Indian National Congress founded (A.O. Hume; Bombay) |
| 1897 | Plague epidemic in Bombay; Rand assassinated by Chaphekar brothers |
| 1905 | Partition of Bengal (Lord Curzon) — Swadeshi Movement begins |
| 1906 | Muslim League founded (Dhaka) |
| 1907 | Surat Split — Moderates vs Extremists |
| 1911 | Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi; Partition of Bengal annulled |
| 1914–18 | World War I — India supports Britain; Home Rule Leagues formed (1916) |
| 1917 | August Declaration — British promise self-governance |
| 1919 | Rowlatt Act passed; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, Amritsar) |
| 1920 | Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi; Khilafat Movement |
| 1922 | Chauri Chaura incident — Gandhi suspends Non-Cooperation |
| 1927 | Simon Commission appointed (all British, no Indian) — boycotted |
| 1929 | Lahore Session — Purna Swaraj resolution (Dec 31); tricolour hoisted (Jan 26, 1930) |
| 1930 | Civil Disobedience Movement — Dandi March (Mar 12–Apr 6); First Round Table Conference |
| 1931 | Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev executed (Mar 23) |
| 1932 | Third Round Table Conference; Communal Award; Poona Pact (Gandhi-Ambedkar) |
| 1935 | Government of India Act — provincial autonomy; elections in 1937 |
| 1937 | Congress forms governments in several provinces |
| 1939 | World War II begins; Congress resigns from provinces (protest) |
| 1940 | Pakistan Resolution (Lahore Session — Muslim League demands separate nation) |
| 1942 | Quit India Movement — "Do or Die" (Aug 8); Cripps Mission failure |
| 1943 | Bengal Famine — devastating food crisis |
| 1945 | INA trials (Subhas Chandra Bose's army — Red Fort trial); Shimla Conference |
| 1946 | Cabinet Mission; Direct Action Day; Interim Government formed |
| 1947 | Mountbatten Plan (June 3); Indian Independence Act (July); Independence — Aug 15 |
| 1948 | Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi (Jan 30); integration of Hyderabad (Operation Polo) |
| 1950 | Constitution of India comes into effect (Jan 26 — Republic Day) |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Archaeology | Study of human history through excavation of sites and analysis of artefacts, inscriptions, and other physical remains |
| Epigraphy | Study of ancient inscriptions on stones, metals, and other objects; helps reconstruct historical events |
| Numismatics | Study of coins — their design, minting, distribution; provides information about rulers, economy, trade |
| Manuscript | Handwritten document on palm leaves, bark, or paper; important source of ancient knowledge |
| Dynasty | Sequence of rulers from the same family; e.g., Maurya, Gupta, Mughal dynasties |
| Empire | Large territory under a single ruler or government; often includes multiple peoples and regions |
| Feudalism | Medieval social system where land was granted by lords to vassals in exchange for military service |
| Vassal | A person granted land by a lord in the feudal system; owed military and other services |
| Iqtadar/Muqti | Revenue assignee in Delhi Sultanate — collected revenue from assigned area; maintained troops |
| Mansabdar | Military-civil officer in Mughal Empire who held a rank (mansab); commanded soldiers |
| Zat | Personal rank of a Mansabdar — determined salary and status |
| Sawar | Cavalry rank — number of horsemen a Mansabdar was required to maintain |
| Jagir | Revenue assignment (land) given to Mansabdars in lieu of cash salary |
| Zamindar | Local revenue collector and landholder; intermediary between peasants and the state |
| Subsistence farming | Farming to produce enough food for farmer's family, not for sale in markets |
| Plantation | Large-scale single-crop farming (cash crops); required large land and labour; e.g., indigo, tea, coffee, rubber |
| Indentured labourer | Worker under contract to work for an employer for a fixed period (usually 5–7 years); used in plantations after slavery was abolished; many sent to Mauritius, Caribbean, Fiji |
| Colonialism | Policy of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically |
| Imperialism | Policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force |
| Nationalism | Feeling of pride, loyalty, and devotion to one's nation; desire for self-rule and sovereignty |
| Swaraj | Self-rule or self-governance — key demand of Indian national movement; "Swaraj is my birthright" — Tilak |
| Boycott | Refusal to buy, use, or participate in something as a form of protest; used during Swadeshi Movement |
| Picketing | Protest technique — standing outside a place (shop, office) to discourage people from entering |
| Satyagraha | Gandhi's method of non-violent resistance — "holding on to truth"; passive resistance; based on truth & non-violence |
| Ahimsa | Non-violence — core principle of Gandhian philosophy; not harming any living being |
| Civil Disobedience | Peaceful refusal to obey unjust laws; deliberate violation of specific laws as protest |
| Swadeshi | Use of locally made goods; promoted during Indian freedom struggle to boycott British goods |
| Purna Swaraj | Complete independence — declared at Lahore Session of INC (Dec 31, 1929) |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Biosphere | Zone of Earth where life exists — includes parts of lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere |
| Ecosystem | Community of living organisms interacting with each other and their physical environment |
| Biodiversity | Variety of plant and animal life in a habitat or region; India is a megadiverse country |
| Lithosphere | Rigid outer layer of Earth — crust and uppermost mantle; broken into tectonic plates |
| Hydrosphere | All water bodies on Earth — oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater, water vapour |
| Atmosphere | Layer of gases surrounding Earth — nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), other gases (1%); protects from UV rays |
| Tropic of Cancer | 23.5°N latitude; passes through middle of India (8 states); divides India into almost two equal halves |
| Standard Meridian | 82.5°E longitude; determines Indian Standard Time (IST); passes through Allahabad/Prayagraj |
| Isthmus | Narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas; e.g., Isthmus of Panama |
| Strait | Narrow body of water connecting two larger water bodies; e.g., Palk Strait (India-Sri Lanka) |
| Delta | Triangular depositional landform at river mouth; formed by accumulation of sediment; e.g., Sundarbans (Ganga), Krishna-Godavari delta |
| Estuary | Where river meets the sea — semi-enclosed coastal body; mix of fresh and salt water; e.g., Narmada estuary |
| Plateau | Flat or gently sloping elevated land (tableland); higher than surrounding area; Deccan Plateau is largest in India |
| Monsoon | Seasonal wind pattern reversal — brings rainfall to India (SW monsoon June–Sept; NE monsoon Oct–Dec) |
| El Nino | Warming of Pacific Ocean surface; weakens Indian monsoon → less rainfall; linked to droughts |
| La Nina | Cooling of Pacific Ocean surface; strengthens Indian monsoon → more rainfall |
| Deforestation | Clearing of forests for agriculture, industry, settlement; causes soil erosion, climate change, biodiversity loss |
| Soil erosion | Removal of topsoil by wind or water; caused by deforestation, overgrazing, improper farming; reduces fertility |
| Conservation | Protection and management of natural resources and environment for sustainable use |
| Contour ploughing | Ploughing along the contour lines of land — reduces soil erosion on slopes; water doesn't flow straight down |
| Shelter belts | Rows of trees planted to break wind force and reduce soil erosion; common in dry regions |
| Strip cropping | Growing crops in alternate strips to break wind flow and reduce soil erosion |
| Watershed | Area of land that drains into a common water body (river, lake); management is key to water conservation |
| Gully erosion | Deep channels cut by running water — severe form of soil erosion; common in Chambal valley |
| Humus | Organic matter in soil formed by decomposition of dead plants and animals; makes soil fertile |
| Groundwater | Water stored underground in porous rocks (aquifers); accessed through wells and tube wells; being overexploited |
| Rainwater harvesting | Collecting and storing rainwater for future use — rooftop collection, check dams, percolation tanks, recharge wells |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Democracy | Form of government where people elect representatives to govern; "government of the people, by the people, for the people" |
| Republic | State where head of government is elected (not hereditary); India is a democratic republic |
| Constitution | Supreme law of the land; defines structure of government, powers, rights of citizens; India's is the longest written constitution |
| Sovereignty | Supreme authority of a state; freedom from external control; India is internally and externally sovereign |
| Secularism | Principle of equal treatment of all religions by the state; no state religion; India follows positive secularism |
| Socialism | Economic system where state ensures equitable distribution of wealth and social justice |
| Franchise (Suffrage) | Right to vote; universal adult franchise means every adult (18+) can vote |
| Bicameral legislature | Two-house legislature — Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha (Parliament) or Vidhan Sabha + Vidhan Parishad (State) |
| Unicameral legislature | One-house legislature — some states have only Vidhan Sabha (no Vidhan Parishad) |
| Coalition government | Government formed by alliance of multiple political parties when no single party gets majority |
| Minority | Group numerically smaller than the rest of population; Constitution provides special rights to religious & linguistic minorities |
| Writ | Formal written order issued by court; 5 types: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto |
| Habeas Corpus | "Produce the body" — court orders authorities to produce a detained person; protects against illegal detention |
| Mandamus | "We command" — court orders a public official to perform their legal duty |
| Prohibition | Court prohibits a lower court from exceeding its jurisdiction |
| Certiorari | Court quashes the order of a lower court or tribunal; issued for jurisdictional error |
| Quo Warranto | "By what authority" — court challenges a person's right to hold a public office |
| Gerrymandering | Manipulation of electoral boundaries to favour one party or group; illegal in India |
| Lobbying | Efforts to influence government decisions by interest groups; important in policy-making |
| PIL (Public Interest Litigation) | Litigation filed for public interest; can be filed by any citizen; no court fee; epistolary jurisdiction (letter petition) |
| Anti-defection law | 10th Schedule of Constitution; prohibits elected members from switching parties; disqualification for defection |
| hung parliament | No single party or alliance gets majority — leads to coalition government or re-election |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Scarcity | Gap between limited resources and unlimited wants — fundamental economic problem |
| Opportunity cost | Value of the next best alternative forgone when making a choice |
| Production | Process of creating goods and services by combining factors of production (land, labour, capital, entrepreneurship) |
| Consumption | Using goods and services to satisfy wants; final use of goods/services |
| GDP | Gross Domestic Product — total value of final goods & services produced within a country in a year |
| Inflation | Sustained increase in general price level; reduces purchasing power of money |
| Deflation | Sustained decrease in general price level; increases purchasing power |
| Fiscal policy | Government policy on taxation and spending to influence the economy |
| Monetary policy | RBI's policy on money supply, interest rates, and credit availability to control inflation and growth |
| Budget | Annual financial statement of government — estimated receipts and expenditures |
| Tax | Compulsory payment to government; Direct tax (income tax) paid by person on whom levied; Indirect tax (GST) passed on to consumer |
| Subsidy | Financial aid given by government to reduce price of essential goods (fertiliser, food, fuel, LPG) |
| Barter system | Exchange of goods for goods without using money; problem of double coincidence of wants |
| Medium of exchange | Anything widely accepted as payment for goods and services; money serves this function |
| Inflation | Sustained rise in general price level; measured by CPI and WPI; erodes purchasing power |
| Fiscal deficit | Difference between government's total expenditure and total receipts (excluding borrowing) |
| Balance of trade | Difference between value of exports and imports; favourable (surplus) when exports > imports |
| Human capital | Skills, knowledge, health, and abilities of people that contribute to economic productivity |
| Economic development | Sustained improvement in living standards, economic growth, reduction in poverty & inequality |
| Per capita income | Total national income divided by total population; average income per person; key development indicator |
| PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) | Method to compare income/prices across countries by adjusting for differences in cost of living |
| Depreciation | Decrease in value of assets over time due to wear and tear; also decline in currency value |
| Globalisation | Process of increasing interconnection between countries through trade, investment, technology, and communication |
| FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) | Investment by a foreign company in business operations of another country |
| SEZ (Special Economic Zone) | Area with special economic regulations — tax benefits, relaxed laws — to attract foreign investment and promote exports |
| Informal economy | Economic activities outside government regulation — no taxes, no social security; constitutes large part of Indian economy |
| River | State/Region | Key Point for Map |
|---|---|---|
| Ganga | Uttarakhand → UP → Bihar → West Bengal | Rises in Uttarakhand; flows SE; forms Ganga Delta in WB; Prayagraj (confluence with Yamuna), Varanasi, Patna |
| Brahmaputra | Tibet → Arunachal Pradesh → Assam → Bangladesh | Enters India as Dihang in Arunachal; Brahmaputra valley in Assam; Majuli Island (world's largest river island) |
| Yamuna | Uttarakhand → UP → Delhi → Haryana → merges with Ganga | Originates at Yamunotri; flows through Delhi; Sangam at Prayagraj; tributary of Ganga |
| Godavari | Maharashtra → Telangana → AP → Bay of Bengal | Rises at Trimbakeshwar; longest peninsular river; "Dakshin Ganga"; flows eastward |
| Krishna | Maharashtra → Karnataka → Telangana → AP | Rises at Mahabaleshwar; flows eastward; Tungabhadra is largest tributary; Almatti Dam, Nagarjuna Sagar |
| Narmada | Amarkantak (MP) → MP → Maharashtra → Gujarat → Arabian Sea | Flows westward in rift valley between Vindhya & Satpura; Sardar Sarovar Dam; Bharuch (mouth) |
| Tapi | Betul (MP) → Maharashtra → Gujarat → Arabian Sea | Flows westward parallel to Narmada; Ukai Dam; Surat at mouth |
| Indus | Tibet → Ladakh → Pakistan → Arabian Sea | Originates in Tibet; flows through Ladakh; Leh is on Indus; makes ancient civilisation sites |
| Mahanadi | Chhattisgarh → Odisha → Bay of Bengal | Hirakud Dam (one of longest earthen dams); Cuttack, Sambalpur |
| Feature | Location | Map Point |
|---|---|---|
| Mt. Everest | Nepal (Himalayas) | Highest peak in the world (8,848.86 m); part of Greater Himalayas |
| Kanchenjunga | Sikkim (India-Nepal border) | Highest peak in India (8,586 m); part of Greater Himalayas |
| K2 (Godwin-Austen) | Pakistan-occupied Kashmir | Second highest peak (8,611 m); part of Karakoram Range |
| Western Ghats | Western coast (Maharashtra to Kerala) | Run parallel to western coast; Anai Mudi (2,695 m — highest in S. India); UNESCO World Heritage |
| Eastern Ghats | Eastern coast (Odisha to TN) | Run parallel to eastern coast; lower than Western Ghats; discontinuous |
| Vindhya Range | Central India (MP to UP border) | Divides North India from Peninsular India; source of many rivers |
| Satpura Range | Central India (MP, Maharashtra) | Runs parallel to Vindhya; between Narmada & Tapi rivers; highest: Dhupgarh (1,350 m) |
| Deccan Plateau | Central & southern India | Bordered by Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Vindhyas, Satpura; triangular; black soil region |
| Thar Desert | Rajasthan (northwestern India) | Great Indian Desert; extends into Pakistan; sandy, arid; Luni is main river |
| Rann of Kutch | Gujarat | Seasonal salt marsh; Kutch earthquake (2001); unique ecosystem; flamingos |
| Ganga Delta/Sundarbans | West Bengal & Bangladesh | World's largest delta; Sundari trees; Royal Bengal Tiger; UNESCO World Heritage |
| Andaman & Nicobar | Bay of Bengal | Volcanic origin (Barren Island — only active volcano in India); coral reefs |
| Lakshadweep | Arabian Sea (off Kerala coast) | Coral atolls; smallest UT of India; 36 islands |
| Gulf of Kutch & Khambhat | Gujarat coast | Important for ports; tidal variations; oil and natural gas reserves |
| Place | State | Historical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab (Pakistan) | Major Indus Valley site; first discovered (1921); gave civilisation its name |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh (Pakistan) | Major IVC site; Great Bath; Granary; Citadel; planned city |
| Dholavira | Gujarat (Kutch) | Major IVC site; large rainwater harvesting; signboard; 5 stages of city |
| Lothal | Gujarat | IVC port/dockyard; trade with Mesopotamia; bead-making factory |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana | Largest IVC site; recent excavations revealing advanced planning |
| Pataliputra | Bihar (modern Patna) | Capital of Mauryas & Guptas; Megasthenes visited; major ancient city |
| Hastinapur | UP | Capital of Kauravas (Mahabharata); archaeological findings of Painted Grey Ware |
| Sarnath | UP (near Varanasi) | First sermon of Buddha (Dharmachakra Pravartana); Ashoka Pillar; Dhamekh Stupa |
| Ajanta Caves | Maharashtra (Aurangabad) | Buddhist cave temples (2nd century BCE – 6th CE); rock-cut paintings; UNESCO site |
| Ellora Caves | Maharashtra (Aurangabad) | Hindu, Buddhist, Jain caves; Kailasa Temple (monolithic); UNESCO site |
| Agra | UP | Mughal capital; Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (nearby) |
| Fatehpur Sikri | UP | Akbar's capital; Buland Darwaza; Panch Mahal; Salim Chishti Dargah |
| Hampi | Karnataka | Capital of Vijayanagara Empire; Virupaksha Temple; ruins of Vijayanagara; UNESCO site |
| Panipat | Haryana | Three Battles of Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761); decisive in Indian history |
| Jallianwala Bagh | Amritsar, Punjab | Site of 1919 massacre by General Dyer; memorial garden; national significance |
| Sabarmati Ashram | Ahmedabad, Gujarat | Gandhi's ashram (Harijan); Dandi March started here (1930) |
| Cellular Jail | Port Blair, Andaman | British prison for political prisoners; "Kalapani"; now national memorial |
| Project/Dam | River | State | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bhakra Nangal | Sutlej | Himachal Pradesh / Punjab | Highest gravity dam in India; reservoir = Gobind Sagar |
| Tehri Dam | Bhagirathi | Uttarakhand | Highest dam in India (260.5 m); multi-purpose project |
| Hirakud Dam | Mahanadi | Odisha | One of longest earthen dams; flood control, irrigation, power |
| Nagarjuna Sagar | Krishna | Telangana / AP | One of the largest masonry dams; irrigation & hydroelectric |
| Sardar Sarovar | Narmada | Gujarat | Largest dam on Narmada; controversial; Narmada Bachao Andolan |
| Indira Sagar | Narmada | Madhya Pradesh | Largest reservoir in India by volume |
| Rihand Dam | Rihand | Uttar Pradesh | Guru Gobind Sagar reservoir; thermal power from coal nearby |
| Mettur Dam | Kaveri | Tamil Nadu | Irrigation in Cauvery delta region; major dispute between TN & Karnataka |
| Idukki Dam | Periyar | Kerala | Arch dam; hydroelectric power generation |
| Damodar Valley Corporation | Damodar | Jharkhand / WB | First multi-purpose river valley project (1948); flood control, irrigation, power |
| Comparison Topic | Key Differences |
|---|---|
| Primary vs Secondary vs Tertiary Sector | Primary: natural resources (42% workforce, 15% GDP); Secondary: manufacturing (22% workforce, 25% GDP); Tertiary: services (36% workforce, 60% GDP) |
| Monsoon vs Retreating Monsoon | SW Monsoon (June–Sept): 75-80% rainfall, both branches; NE Monsoon (Oct–Dec): Tamil Nadu rain, cyclones |
| Himalayan vs Peninsular rivers | Himalayan: perennial, snow-fed, longer courses, form deltas; Peninsular: seasonal, rain-fed, shorter, Narmada/Tapi form estuaries, rest form deltas |
| Organised vs Unorganised Sector | Organised: registered, job security, benefits, regulations; Unorganised: not registered, no job security, no benefits, 90%+ of workforce |
| Formal vs Informal Credit | Formal: banks/cooperatives, regulated, lower interest, requires documentation; Informal: moneylenders/friends, unregulated, high interest, exploitative |
| Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha | LS: directly elected, 5 years, money bills, younger (25+); RS: indirectly elected, permanent, no money bills, older (30+), represents states |
| Fundamental Rights vs DPSP | FR: justiciable (enforceable in court), negative (restrict state), Part III; DPSP: non-justiciable, positive (direct state), Part IV |
| Moderates vs Extremists | Moderates (1885–1905): petitions, dialogue, trust British; Extremists (1905–1919): mass movement, Swadeshi, no trust in British |
| Non-Cooperation vs Civil Disobedience vs Quit India | Non-Coop: boycott + surrender titles (1920); Civil Disob: law-breaking + Dandi March (1930); Quit India: "Do or Die" immediate independence (1942) |
| Kharif vs Rabi vs Zaid | Kharif: monsoon crop (Jun-Jul sowing, rice/cotton); Rabi: winter crop (Oct-Nov sowing, wheat/mustard); Zaid: summer crop (Mar-Apr, cucumber/watermelon) |
| Alluvial vs Black vs Red Soil | Alluvial: river deposits, most fertile, Indo-Gangetic plain; Black (Regur): Deccan, cotton-growing, water-retaining; Red: iron-rich, porous, peninsular India |
| National Party vs State Party | National: EC recognition in 4+ states or 6% votes in 4+ LS seats; State: EC recognition in 1 state; both get reserved symbols |
| Quote / Slogan | Attributed To | Context |
|---|---|---|
| "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it" | Bal Gangadhar Tilak | Extremist phase of national movement |
| "Give me blood, I shall give you freedom" | Subhas Chandra Bose | INA soldiers; Singapore, 1943 |
| "Do or Die" / "Karo ya Maro" | Mahatma Gandhi | Quit India Movement, August 8, 1942 |
| "Government of the people, by the people, for the people" | Abraham Lincoln | Definition of democracy; Gettysburg Address |
| "Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe azadi dunga" | Subhas Chandra Bose | Address to Indians; wartime rally |
| "Inquilab Zindabad" | Bhagat Singh (popularised) | Revolutionary slogan; meaning "Long Live Revolution" |
| "Vande Mataram" | Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay | National song; Anandamath (1882) |
| "Sare Jahan Se Achcha" | Muhammad Iqbal | Patriotic song; written during freedom struggle |
| "Jai Hind" | Subhas Chandra Bose | National salutation; adopted by INA |
| "Satyameva Jayate" | Mundaka Upanishad | National motto — "Truth Alone Triumphs"; adopted from 3rd century BCE inscription |
| "Go back to the Vedas" | Swami Dayananda Saraswati | Arya Samaj reform movement |
| "India is not a nation, nor a country. It is a subcontinent of nationalities" | Mahatma Gandhi | Reflecting India's diversity and pluralism |